Thread: Aristotle

Aristotle

“Aristotle was the unimpeachable authority on every science and art
known to his day.” (Maxey)

Aristotle was born in 384 BC. His
father was Physician. He studied in Plato’s Academy for about 17 years. He was
attached to Plato’s Academy for two reasons:

1.It was the cradle
of education in Greece for advanced studies.
2.He was so much
influenced by Plato’ teaching.

He served as tutor of Alexander the Great
in 343 BC and kept his school in the Lyceum for 12 years. After the death of
Alexander the Great, the Athenians revolted and prosecuted the accused persons
of whom Aristotle was one of the many. He was charged for impiety but he fled to
avoid punishment.

During the middle Ages, he was simply considered “the
Philosopher”. The recovery of his manuscripts in the thirteenth century marks a
turning point in the history of philosophy. According to Dunning, “the capital significance of Aristotle in the history of
political theories lies in the fact that he gave to politics the character of an
independent science.”

He is founder of science of logic. His
monumental treatise “Politics” is the most valuable works on Political Science.
The “Politics” is a chief work on the science and art of Government
giving full justification for existing of the institution like the state,
slavery and family is calculated to suggest the remedies for the ill of the
body-politic of the city-state. Though it is generally said that “Politics” is
an unfinished treatise and often obscure but the half understood words of
Aristotle have become laws of thoughts to other ages.

Zeller says,
“Politics of Aristotle is the richest treasure that has
come down to us from antiquity, it is the greatest contribution to the field of
political science that we possess.”

Aristotle as Father of Political
Science

The title of fatherhood of Political
Science bestowed upon Aristotle is not without justification. He was brought up
in the order of medicine as his father was a physician of the king of Macedonia.
Since his childhood he got every opportunity and encouragement to develop a
scientific bent of mind. Instead of turning towards literature like his great
master Plato, he built the terminology of science and philosophy.

In the
words of Renan, “Socrates gave philosophy to
mankind and Aristotle gave science to it.”

Aristotle gives us
definite and clear-cut dogmas, instead of groping in illusions and imaginations.
He does not believe in abstract notions of justice and virtue, but has a
concrete approach. He discarded utopian philosophy of Plato and advocated
logical and scientific theories based upon realism. Aristotle supported the
principle of unity through diversity. He was of the view that reality lay in the
concrete manifestation of things. He separated ethics from politics.

We
can say that Aristotle laid the foundation of a real political science by his
keen and practical political approach and systematic treatment of the subject.
He may be called the “Scientist of Politics” because of his empirical study. He
collected his data with care and minuteness, clarifies and defines it and draws
logical conclusions which deserve nothing but admiration and praise.

Aristotle’s Views on Origin of
State

“Man is a political
animal, destined by nature for state life.”

“State exists for the sake of
good life and not for the sake of life only.”
(Aristotle)

Aristotle was of the view that the origin of the
state is present in the inherent desire of man to satisfy his economic needs and
racial instincts. The family is formed by male and female on the one hand and
master and slave on the other hand. Then they work for achievement of their
desires. They live together and form a such family in household which has its
moral and social unity and value.

Aristotle said, “Family is the association established by nature for the supply
of man’s everyday wants. But when several families are united and the
association aims at something more than the supply of daily need, then come into
existence the village. When several villages are united in a single community,
perfect and large enough to be quite self-sufficing, the state comes into
existence, originating in the bare needs of life and continuing in existence for
the sake of good life.”

Three elements are essential to build
the state on perfect lines i.e., fellowship, practical organization and justice.
A man without state is either a beast or a God. According to Aristotle, “he who by nature and not be mere accident is without a state
is either above humanity or below it, he is tribe-less, lawless and heartless
one.”

The family is natural and inborn instinct, similarly the
state is also natural for individuals. Baker said, “The state is the natural home of the fully grown and natural man.
It is an institution for the moral perfection of man to which his whole nature
moves.”

Aristotle was of the view that state is a
“Political Koimonia”, an association which represents a functional unity
of varied and reciprocal parts made by the pursuit of a common aim in which
their nature, their habits and their training lead them all to join.
Maclwain said, “The state is a kind of Koimonia
which is a supreme over all others, and embraces them all.” State is
an association of human being and the highest form of association existing for
the sake of perfect and healthier life.

Functions of
the State
1.The state is not merely an association of
associations but it is a highest natural association for pursuits of spiritual
class of common life of virtue.
2.The state is based on the element of
justice
3.It also aims at the highest good of the community for its
proper realization of demands and needs in it.
4.The state functions
to ensure a perfect and self-sufficing life of all its components
members.
5.The state also ensures to fulfill all the natural needs of
its members and to provide opportunities to the individuals for the attainment
of moral, intellectual and physical excellence.
6.According to
Aristotle, “Man is essentially good and the function of the state is to develop
his good faculties into a habit of good actions.”

Rule
of Law
Aristotle believed in natural laws but not the natural
rights. The absence of law is the negation of good laws and this meant lack of
constitutional laws. Law was superior to the Government because it checked the
latter's irregularities. Rule by law was better than personal rule because law
had as impersonal quality which the rules lacked.

Sabine paid
tribute to Aristotle in these words, “the supremacy of
law is accepted by Aristotle as a mark of a good state and not merely as an
unfortunate necessity.”

Justice means that every citizen in
the state should abide by the dictates of law and fulfill its moral obligation
towards community members. According to Aristotle there should be two kind of
justice:
1.Distributive Justice
It is mainly
concerned with voluntary commercial transaction like sale, hire, furnishing of
security, acquisition of property etc.
2.Corrective
Justice
It deals with proper allocation to each person according to
his capacity and worth.

Aristotle emphasis that reward and honors should
not be offered to the virtuous few but to others as who collectively contribute
in the welfare of the state and should be proportionately rewarded.

Theory of
Revolution

Decay and disturbance in political life
brought crucial changes in the Governments of the city-state in Greece, made
Aristotle to contemplate deeply and to stress the causes of the Revolution and
its remedies. Aristotle’s theory is divided into two
parts:

1.First part is a practical manual of conduct advising
democrats, aristocrats, monarchs and oligarchs and even tyrants as how to keep
themselves in power.

2.Second part is a treatise on the
philosophical basis of the good and stable governments.

What is Revolution?

To Aristotle, if any change
occurs in the existing system or constitution of the state, it means revolution.
For example, if in the state the constitution has changed from monarchy to
democracy, it is a revolution. Aristotle was of the view that if the
constitution remains the same, but the ruling party has been transferred from
one man to another, it is also a revolution.


General Causes of Revolution:
1.The main feature
of revolution is to be the craving of men for equality. Equality has two
characters-absolute and proportional. The proletariat are passionate to secure
absolute equality for the availability of the same rights that are possessed by
few. The few struggle for proportional equality for perpetual upgrading
superiority in power and privilege.

2.Strong desire for justice
becomes another feature of revolution. Aristotle was of the view that men turn
to revolution when they think they have not got their
dues.


Particular Causes of
Revolution:
1. Desire for gain and
profit.

2. Universal desire for honor and
prestige

3. The possession of sovereign power by an individual or
group so as to create fear and apprehension in the minds of the
subject

4. Undue priority and prominence of individuals caused
great stir in the heart of the subdued people

5. Disproportionate
increase of power and wealth in any part of the state

6. Elections
intrigues and moral degradation kept up in the selection of some
people

7. Carelessness shown in granting public offices to
disloyal citizens and undue favoritism shown to the individuals

8.
Too much power concentrated in one man or class of men for political
gains

9. Dissimilarity of different elements in the
state

10. The rivalries of people of different races in the
state

11. Dynastic quarrels and conflicts

12. Free
immigration of outside races with different notions of justice and
law


Revolutions in Particular kind of
State:

1.Democracy
In democracies,
revolutions are led by the dogmatic policies of demagogues in attacking the
rich.

2.Tyranny or Oligarchy
In oligarchies,
revolutions take place due to two reasons:
a)Oppressive or
Totalitarian rule
b)Rivalry among the ruling
dictators

3.Aristocracy
In aristocracies,
revolution held to the policy of narrowing down the circle of the Government.
Aristocracy tends to become oliogarchy, through the undue encroachment of the
richer classes polity to become democracy, through the undue aspiration of the
poorer class. According to Dunning “Stability can
be maintained only by proportionate equality and by giving to each his
own.” Aristotle was of the view that democracy is more secure and
stable than oligarchy.


Remedies for
Revolution:
1.Abundant political power should not be
concentrated in the hands of one man or one class of men.

2.The
various classes in the state without any discrimination of color and creed
should be treated alike and with proper consideration

3.Honors and
rewards should be distributed as fairly as possible only to deserving ones
because inequalities of offices and honors drive men to
revolt.

4.Political offices should be within reach of every
individual who is able of performing his functions best.

5.The
Government should be so vigilantly organized that the political office-holders
cannot make money out of their offices. Bribes and other kinds of illegal
gratification should be made quite impossible to accept.

6.A
Government would gain popularity and political stability if it so arranges
things that the internal details of the administration, particularly the
administration of public finances is open to public
scrutiny.

7.Proper education should be imparted to the citizens in
the spirit of constitution.

8.Political stability and internal
solidarity can be gained by maintaining proportionate
equality.

9.The habit of obedience and submission to law should be
instilled. Lawlessness and anarchy should not be allowed to creep in even in
small and trifling matter.

10.In oligarchy and aristocracy, the
inferior class must be well treated and the principles of democratic equality
must be followed among the privileged classes. In democracy, the poor and the
rich should be encouraged to take part in the state administration which does
not affect the sovereign power.

Aristotle also suggested various methods
in making oligarchies and tyrannies-stable which are to be followed by a
tyrant.

a)A tyrant must employ spies particularly females to trace
out disloyal persons to gallows the concerned.

b)He should follow
an aggressive policy abroad

c)He should always warn people about
constant fear of invasion from outside

d)He should keep the people
busy and never allow them to remain in vertigo and lethargy.

e)He
must extend enthusiasm in religion

f)He should punish the guilty
so that crimes must be ended for the peaceful order in the
state.

g)He should increase the material well-being of the
citizens.

h)He should perish the intellectual life of the citizens
to perish revolutionary tendencies.

i) He should adorn his city
and must work for its glory

j)He must have respect for the
good.

Aristotle put the security of the state above everything else. He
even permitted interference in the privacy of individual’s life when necessary
in the interests of the state. According to Aristotle “A
revolution constitutes more a political than a legal change. It had the effect
of reversing ethical, social and economic standard."